肺栓塞(PE)是临床较为常见的急危重症,致死率高。心房颤动(AF)虽并非致死性心律失常,但其心慌、胸闷、晕厥等临床表现会给病人造成健康负担。早在1988年KLEIN等[1]的临床研究就表明,AF为PE的危险因素之一。随着时间的推移、人口老龄化的加剧、人群就医便利性的增加及医学检查技术的进步,AF及PE发病率均逐年上升,越来越多的研究提出AF为PE的危险因素之一[2-3]。本文就AF合并PE的流行病学、发病机制、危险因素及预防等方面进行综述,以期加深对该病的认识。
1 流行病学AF在65岁以上的人群中发病率达6%,在80岁以上的人群中发病率高达10%[4-5]。PE在欧美国家中年发病例数可达60万,未经治疗时病死率可高达25%,及时诊疗后则可降至5%[6]。在20世纪50、60年代,有研究对AF病人行尸检表明,AF合并PE的发病率为9.8%~15.8%[7-8]。而在2014年发表的一项涉及29 975例病人的队列研究显示,AF病人中4%的病人在随访过程中发生了深静脉血栓,其中55%的病人为PE,相对于非AF病人发生PE的风险比率为11.8,表明AF病人(尤其在AF发生6个月内)发生PE的可能性较非AF病人明显升高[3]。
2 发病机制① 左心耳内壁有大量分布不均的梳状肌,AF发作时该处血流量明显下降,同时vW因子表达增加,利于血小板聚集及血栓形成[9-10]。②AF后病人机体处于高凝状态,利于深静脉血栓形成。③右心房血栓同样是PE栓子重要来源[11],AF时右心房存在血流动力学参数异常,容易形成右心房血栓,右心房血栓脱落可直接形成PE。
3 危险因素 3.1 高龄高龄是AF及PE的共同危险因素[12]。高龄病人常常合并如糖尿病、心力衰竭、慢性阻塞性肺疾病(COPD)等多种基础疾病,这些疾病均可导致心脏重塑从而增加AF发生风险。同时,高龄病人细胞代谢功能减退、免疫紊乱、炎症因子水平升高可对血管内皮造成损伤,且病人活动性差,可增加PE的发生率[13-14]。
3.2 心力衰竭心力衰竭病人中半数以上会合并AF[15],原因如下。心力衰竭病人心脏负荷过重导致心房扩张,同时坏死心肌细胞会导致心肌纤维化,而心房细胞钙平衡改变会导致心房电活动异常。心力衰竭病人的活动受限,且其低心排指数可以导致机体血流量减少、血液淤滞。心力衰竭作为一种炎症前状态,会导致机体内白细胞介素-1、C反应蛋白、肿瘤坏死因子等因子的水平升高,从而使内环境紊乱,进而导致内皮损伤、凝血功能异常[16],形成较好的凝血环境,增加PE发生率。
3.3 COPDCOPD病人多为老年人,常存在长期卧床、反复感染、心脑血管疾病等栓塞高危因素。有研究结果显示,不明原因的COPD急性加重病人中发生PE者可占16.1%[17-18]。作为一种全身炎症性疾病,COPD会导致C反应蛋白水平升高,而高C反应蛋白水平与AF发病相关;治疗COPD的常见药物易诱发心肌细胞收缩、增加交感神经张力及尿中钾与镁的排泄率,从而诱发AF[19]。
3.4 代谢综合征代谢综合征病人易合并冠状动脉疾病、阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停、肺动脉高压等疾病,造成心脏重塑,使心房内压升高、电活动异常,从而使AF的发生风险大大增加[20-21]。另一方面,代谢综合征所致的炎症反应及氧化应激会促进血小板活化及凝血因子水平增加,为血栓形成提供良好的微环境[22],同时代谢综合征也会增加患动脉粥样硬化性疾病的风险,而动脉粥样硬化性疾病又与PE发生风险增加相关。
3.5 败血症败血症病人AF的发生率较高,且与败血症严重程度呈正相关,发生AF者预后较差,这可能与发生败血症时体内高水平炎症因子、应激状态下体内高儿茶酚胺与糖皮质激素诱发的电解质紊乱、体液平衡破坏相关[23]。败血症病人多处于卧床状态,体内多种炎性细胞因子水平升高可能会诱发凝血级联反应激活及血管内皮损伤,从而造成弥散性血管内凝血,因此败血症也是PE危险因素之一。
3.6 房间隔缺损(ASD)AF是ASD的常见并发症,其发生率与ASD病人的年龄呈正相关,越早进行房间隔修补术,AF的发生率越低[24]。ASD造成AF主要通过心房左向右分流导致右心房扩张、左心房心肌形态改变的几何重构及包括窦房结恢复时间增加、房内传导延迟、心房有效不应期延长的电重构完成[25]。即便进行了手术修补,修补部位仍会存在向各方向传导不均匀或完全阻滞的心房瘢痕,故较常人更易诱发AF[26]。AF病人易合并心房附壁血栓,右心房血栓可直接进入肺循环导致PE,而左心房血栓则可通过缺损处左向右分流到达右心从而造成PE[27-28]。
3.7 其他其他危险因素包括自身免疫性疾病、手术等相对少见,在此不做赘述。
4 预后BARRA等[29]的一项回顾性研究表明,既往有AF病史的PE病人院内病死率较无AF病史者增加1倍,而6个月内病死率较无AF病史者可增加2倍,其主要原因为血栓的形成及血流动力学功能紊乱。右心功能对于PE病人的预后至关重要。右心室是一种薄壁结构,在正常状态下,其功能足以支持完成低压和低阻力的肺循环,而AF病人右心功能减弱以致左心室前负荷降低[6],同时,由于左心房前负荷降低及心率增加,使左心室充盈减少、心肌耗氧量增加及心脏舒张期缩短,这一系列变化均可能导致AF合并PE病人的生存期缩短。
5 预防 5.1 抗栓治疗有研究结果显示,AF病人行抗栓治疗后可使PE发生率降低33%[30],故治疗AF和预防PE并不冲突。而对于一些有抗凝药禁忌、高龄及高出血风险的病人, 左心耳封堵术可作为药物治疗以外的重要补充措施.
5.1.1 抗栓治疗对象的选择AF病人应定期评估其血栓栓塞风险及抗凝出血风险来明确是否需要抗栓治疗。①血栓栓塞风险评估:有关研究表明,目前临床公认的AF后卒中风险评分系统CHA2DS2-VASc评分也可用于PE风险的评估[31]。2015年我国AF管理指南提出:CHA2DS2-VASc评分≥2分者需服抗凝药物;评分为1分者,口服抗凝药物或阿司匹林或不进行抗栓治疗均可;评分0分者不需抗栓治疗[32]。②抗凝出血风险评估:对于有抗凝需要的病人,可应用HAS-BLED评分来评估抗凝出血风险[33]。由于以上两项评分方法之间危险因素多有重叠,故出血风险高的病人发生血栓栓塞风险也高。但是,OLESEN等[34]的研究结果表明此类病人抗凝治疗临床获益大。因此,临床普遍认为,对于CHA2DS2-VASc评分≥2分、HAS-BLED评分≥3分的AF病人,应在纠正出血可逆高危因素后行抗凝治疗,并密切监测血凝指标。
5.1.2 抗栓药物的选择① 抗血小板治疗:目前常用药物为阿司匹林、氯吡格雷。阿司匹林的优点为服药方法简单,但研究表明对于年龄大于75岁的病人,该药不能有效降低病人血栓事件的发生率[35]。氯吡格雷的优点为不需要监测国际标准化比值(INR)。②抗凝治疗:包括传统抗凝药物华法林及新型抗凝药物达比加群酯、利伐沙班、阿哌沙班等。华法林抗凝效果确切,但有以下缺点:用药剂量个体差异性较大、药效易受多种药物影响、服药期间需要频繁监测INR。新型抗凝药物抗凝效果不逊于华法林,且服药剂量较固定,不需频繁监测血凝,有较少的药物反应,服药期间的食物禁忌和出血风险显著降低[36-40];但是新型抗凝药物价格昂贵,且相对华法林等传统抗凝药来说临床研究较少,一旦发生出血事件,无特效对抗药物。
5.2 左心耳封堵术有研究结果显示,AF病人左心房血栓发生率为6%~15%[41-43]。左心房血栓与PE发生相关,提示预防左心耳血栓可减少AF合并PE的发生。目前预防左心耳血栓常用方法为左心耳封堵术[44-45],包括外科手术及经皮左心耳封堵。外科手术创伤大,常见于选择行开胸手术的AF病人,术中同时行封堵。目前临床上较为常见的是经皮左心耳封堵。近年来的研究表明,经皮左心耳封堵术与传统华法林抗凝相比疗效无明显差异,并且随着手术技术的发展及器械的进步,发生心包积液、封堵器脱落或栓塞等并发症的概率逐步下降[46-48]。目前,左心耳封堵术已经成为药物治疗及预防栓塞禁忌病人重要的补充治疗。
5.3 针对危险因素预防对于常见危险因素可行针对性预防,如心力衰竭病人积极改善心功能,代谢综合征病人改变生活方式并减轻体质量,COPD及败血病病人积极控制感染、改善机体炎症状态,房间隔缺损病人可行房间隔封堵术,高血压病人控制血压达标等[49-50]。
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